Перевод: со всех языков на все языки

со всех языков на все языки

further to the cause of peace

Толкование Перевод

1 further to the cause of peace

Военный термин: способствовать делу мира

Универсальный англо-русский словарь > further to the cause of peace
2 further to the cause of peace

способствовать делу мира

English-Russian military dictionary > further to the cause of peace
3 further to the cause of peace

способствовать делу мира

English-Russian dictionary of terms that are used in computer games > further to the cause of peace
4 further the cause of peace

Макаров: бороться за дело мира

Универсальный англо-русский словарь > further the cause of peace
5 further

1. a от I

2. a более отдалённый, дальний

the further end of the village — дальний конец деревни

further data — более подробные данные

further bid — более высокая цена

any further — дальше; дальнейший

further away — еще дальше

3. a дальнейший, позднейший

until further notice — впредь до дальнейшего уведомления

without further argument — без дальнейших объяснений

further efforts — дальнейшие усилия

further success — дальнейший успех

further advance — дальнейший успех

further orders — дальнейший заказ

4. a дополнительный, добавочный

further evidence — новые доказательства

further clause — дополнительная статья

further information — дополнительная информация

without further notice — без дополнительного извещения

5. adv от 1

6. adv дальше, далее

unsafe to proceed further — дальше продвигаться опасно

further on — далее

further out — еще дальше

7. adv кроме того; затем

let me further tell you — разрешите мне добавить

8. v продвигать; содействовать; способствовать

to further plans — содействовать осуществлению планов

further to the cause of peace — способствовать делу мира

Синонимический ряд:

1. additional (adj.) added; additional; another; else; extra; fresh; in addition; more; new; other; subsequent; supplementary; ulterior

2. at a greater distance (adj.) at a greater distance; beyond; distant; farther; longer; to a greater distance

3. advance (verb) advance; aid; assist; encourage; forward; foster; help; promote; serve

4. also (other) additionally; again; also; as well; besides; furthermore; in addition; into the bargain; likewise; moreover; still; then; to boot; too; yet

5. beyond (other) beyond; farther; yonder

Антонимический ряд:

hinder

English-Russian base dictionary > further
6 peace

n

мир; спокойствие; общественный порядок

to accept an honorable peace — принимать условия почетного мира

to achieve peace through negotiation — добиваться / достигать мира посредством переговоров

to advance the cause of peace — способствовать делу мира

to advocate peace — выступать в защиту мира; отстаивать мир

to be at peace — быть в мире; не воевать

to be guided by the principles of peace and cooperation — руководствоваться принципами мира и сотрудничества

to be in the forefront of endeavors towards peace — быть в первых рядах сторонников защиты мира

to be in the interest of peace — отвечать интересам укрепления мира

to be solidly for peace — единодушно выступать за мир

to beg for peace — просить мира

to block avenues / the path / the way to peace — мешать достижению мира, ставить препятствия на пути к миру

to bolster peace — активно поддерживать мир

to boost chances for peace — увеличивать вероятность достижения мира

to breach the peace — нарушать мир

to bring about peace — добиваться мира

to build peace — бороться за мир

to campaign for peace — проводить кампанию / агитировать за мир

to champion peace — отстаивать дело мира

to cherish peace — защищать мир

to clamor for peace — требовать мира

to commit a breach of peace — нарушать мир

to complete the peace — добиться прочного мира

to conclude peace — заключать мир

to consolidate peace — укреплять мир

to contribute to peace — содействовать делу мира

to crusade for peace — выступать за мир

to declare peace — провозглашать мир

to defend peace — защищать мир

to desire peace — желать мира

to discuss peace — обсуждать проблему мирного урегулирования

to disturb peace — нарушать общественный порядок

to endanger peace — создавать угрозу миру

to ensure peace — обеспечивать мир

to establish peace — устанавливать мир

to exist in peace — существовать в условиях мира

to forge peace — устанавливать мир

to further peace — укреплять мир

to get peace — добиться мира

to give peace a chance — соглашаться на мирное урегулирование

to guarantee peace — гарантировать мир

to halt threat to peace — останавливать угрозу миру

to help the cause of peace — способствовать делу миру

to herald a lasting peace — предвещать прочный мир

to hold the key to peace — обладать ключом к миру

to impede peace — препятствовать миру

to impose peace — устанавливать мир

to improve peace — укреплять мир

to jeopardize peace — ставить мир под угрозу

to join in the struggle for peace — включаться в борьбу за мир

to keep the peace — поддерживать порядок

to labor for peace — добиваться мира

to let go in peace — отпускать с миром

to live together in peace — мирно сосуществовать

to maintain peace — поддерживать / сохранять мир

to make peace — заключать / устанавливать мир

to negotiate for peace — вести переговоры о мире

to offer peace from a position of strength — предлагать мир с позиции силы

to pave the way for peace — прокладывать путь к миру

to pledge to maintain peace — брать обязательство поддерживать мир

to pose a threat to peace — являться угрозой миру

to preserve peace — отстаивать / беречь / сохранять мир

to probe for peace — зондировать возможность сохранения мира

to proclaim peace — провозглашать мир

to promote peace — способствовать достижению мира

to protect peace — защищать мир

to provide peace — обеспечивать мир

to pursue peace — добиваться мира

to put obstacles in the way of peace — ставить препятствия на пути к миру

to reach a lasting peace — добиваться прочного мира

to realize peace — добиваться мира

to restore peace to a country — восстанавливать мир в стране

to retain peace — сохранять / поддерживать мир

to safeguard peace — защищать / обеспечивать мир; стоять на страже мира

to secure peace — добиваться мира

to seek a negotiated peace — добиваться мира в результате переговоров

to serve the cause of peace — служить делу мира

to squander an opportunity for peace — упускать возможность достижения мира

to stand for peace — стоять за мир

to stand on guard of peace — стоять на страже мира

to strengthen peace — укреплять мир

to strive for peace — стремиться к миру

to sue for peace — требовать мира

to support peace — поддерживать мир

to sustain peace — сохранять мир

to take steps toward peace — принимать меры для достижения мира

to talk peace — 1) вести мирные переговоры 2) проводить миролюбивую политику по отношению к кому-л.

to test a country's sincerity for peace — проверять, насколько искренне страна хочет мира

to threaten peace — угрожать миру

to uphold peace — отстаивать мир

to usher in peace — приносить мир

to violate peace — нарушать мир

to wage peace — бороться / вести борьбу за мир

to win peace — добиваться мира

to work for peace — бороться за мир / за сохранение мира

to yearn for peace — жаждать мира; стремиться к миру

- achievement of a lasting peace
- appeal for peace
- aspiration for peace
- atmosphere of peace
- avenues to peace
- bid for peace
- breach of peace
- breakdown of the peace
- bulwark of peace
- buttress of peace
- call for peace
- cause of peace
- champion of peace

- charter of peace
- Cold peace
- committed to peace
- comprehensive peace
- concern for peace
- consistent policy of peace
- consolidation of peace

- danger to peace

- Decree on Peace
- dedication to peace
- defence of peace
- defender of peace
- democratic peace
- desire for peace
- destroyer of peace
- devotion to the cause of peace
- disturbance of peace
- domestic peace
- dove of peace
- drive for peace
- durable peace
- earnest of peace
- efforts for peace
- elusive peace
- enduring peace
- envoy of peace
- everlasting peace
- fight for peace
- fighter for peace

- for the sake of peace
- forces of peace
- fragile peace
- general peace
- genuine peace
- global peace
- guarantee of peace
- honorable peace
- international peace
- inviolable peace
- just peace
- lasting peace
- linchpin of peace
- maintenance of peace
- menace to peace
- momentum towards peace
- negotiated peace
- noncoercive peace
- overall peace
- pact of peace

- partisan of peace
- patched-up peace
- path to peace
- peace of the world
- peace on earth
- peace through justice
- peace through law
- peace through strength
- peace throughout the world
- peace with honor
- peace without annexations or indemnities
- permanent peace
- plan for peace
- policy of peace

- precarious peace
- predatory peace
- preliminary terms for peace
- preservation of peace

- prevention and removal of threats to peace
- public peace
- pursuit of peace
- push for peace
- quest for peace
- realization of peace
- reestablishment of peace
- regional peace
- restoration of peace
- road to peace
- safeguarding of peace
- search for peace
- separate peace
- shaky peace
- solid peace
- stable peace
- state of peace
- step towards peace
- strengthening of peace
- stronghold of peace
- struggle for peace
- supporter of peace
- Teachers for Peace
- terms of peace
- threat to peace

- thrust for peace
- true peace
- uneasy peace
- universal peace
- unjust peace
- Wave of Peace
- way to peace
- work for peace
- world peace
- worldwide peace
- zone of peace

Politics english-russian dictionary > peace
7 cause

1. noun
1) (what produces effect) Ursache, die (of für od. Gen.); (person) Verursacher, der/Verursacherin, die

be the cause of something — etwas verursachen

2) (reason) Grund, der; Anlass, der

cause for/to do something — Grund od. Anlass zu etwas/, etwas zu tun

no cause for concern — kein Grund zur Beunruhigung

without good cause — ohne triftigen Grund

3) (aim, object of support) Sache, die

freedom is our common cause — Freiheit ist unser gemeinsames Anliegen od. Ziel

be a lost cause — aussichtslos sein; verlorene Liebesmühe sein (ugs.)

[in] a good cause — [für] eine gute Sache
2. transitive verb
1) (produce) verursachen; erregen [Aufsehen, Ärgernis]; hervorrufen [Verstimmung, Unruhe, Verwirrung]

2) (give)

cause somebody worry/pain — etc. jemandem Sorge/Schmerzen usw. bereiten

cause somebody trouble/bother — jemandem Umstände machen

3) (induce)

cause somebody to do something — jemanden veranlassen, etwas zu tun

* * *
[ko:z] 1. noun
1) (something or someone that produces an effect or result: Having no money is the cause of all my misery.) die Ursache

2) (a reason for an action; a motive: You had no cause to treat your wife so badly.) der Grund

3) (an aim or concern for which an individual or group works: cancer research and other deserving causes; in the cause of peace.) die Angelegenheit
2. verb
(to make (something) happen; to bring about; to be the means of: What caused the accident?; He caused me to drop my suitcase.) verursachen, veranlassen

* * *

'cause

[kəz]

conj (sl) short for because

cause

[kɔ:z, AM esp kɑ:z]

I. n

1. (reason) Grund m, Ursache f

\cause of action Klagegrund m

challenge for \cause Ablehnung f unter Angabe von Gründen

challenge without \cause Ablehnung f ohne Angabe von Gründen

\cause of death Todesursache f

\cause and effect Ursache und Wirkung

contributory \causes mitverursachende Umstände

to show \cause Gründe vorlegen

2. no pl (understandable grounds) Anlass m

you've got good \cause for complaint/concern Sie haben allen Grund, sich zu beschweren/besorgt zu sein

to give \cause for concern Anlass zur Sorge geben

don't worry, there's no \cause for concern keine Sorge, es besteht kein Grund zur Beunruhigung

a just \cause ein triftiger Grund

to be \cause to celebrate Grund zum Feiern sein

with/without [good] \cause aus triftigem/ohne [triftigen] Grund

▪ to be the \cause of sth der Grund für etw akk sein

3. (purpose) Sache f

in the \cause of freedom im Namen der Freiheit

a rebel without a \cause jd, der sich gegen jegliche Autorität widersetzt

to make common \cause with sb mit jdm gemeinsame Sache machen

a good [or worthy] \cause eine gute Sache, ein guter Zweck

to be for a good \cause für einen guten Zweck sein

a lost \cause eine verlorene Sache

to defend [or further] a \cause für eine Sache eintreten

to do sth in the \cause of sth etw im Namen einer S. gen tun

4. (court case) Fall m

to plead a \cause einen Fall vertreten

5. LAW (legal proceedings) Verhandlung f

\cause list Verhandlungsliste f, Terminkalender m

matrimonial \causes Ehesachen pl

II. vt

▪ to \cause sth etw verursachen [o hervorrufen]

this medicine may \cause dizziness and nausea die Einnahme dieses Medikaments kann zu Schwindelgefühl und Übelkeit führen

to \cause a disturbance die öffentliche [Sicherheit und] Ordnung stören

to \cause sb harm jdm schaden [o Schaden zufügen]

to \cause mischief [or trouble] Unruhe stiften

▪ to \cause sb to do sth jdn veranlassen, etw zu tun

the strict teacher \caused the boy to burst into tears der strenge Lehrer brachte den Jungen zum Weinen

the bright light \caused her to blink das helle Licht ließ sie blinzeln

* * *
[kɔːz]
1. n

1) Ursache f (of für)

cause and effect — Ursache und Wirkung

what was the cause of the fire? — wodurch ist das Feuer entstanden?

2) (= reason) Grund m, Anlass m

she has no cause to be angry — sie hat keinen Grund, sich zu ärgern

the cause of his failure — der Grund für sein Versagen

with/without (good) cause — mit (triftigem)/ohne (triftigen) Grund

not without cause — nicht ohne Grund

there's no cause for alarm — es besteht kein Grund or Anlass zur Aufregung

you have every cause to be worried — du hast allen Anlass zur Sorge

you have good cause for complaint — Sie haben allen Grund zur Klage, Sie beklagen sich zu Recht

3) (= purpose, ideal) Sache f

to make common cause with sb — mit jdm gemeinsame Sache machen

to work for or in a good cause — sich für eine gute Sache einsetzen

he died for the cause of peace — er starb für den Frieden or für die Sache des Friedens

in the cause of justice — für die (Sache der) Gerechtigkeit, im Namen der Gerechtigkeit

it's all in a good cause — es ist für eine gute Sache

4) (JUR: action) Fall m, Sache f

2. vt
verursachen
to cause sb grief — jdm Kummer machen

to cause sb to do sth (form) — jdn veranlassen, etw zu tun (form)

* * *

cause [kɔːz]

A s

1. Ursache f:

cause of the crash FLUG Absturzursache;

cause of death Todesursache;

cause and effect Ursache und Wirkung f

2. Grund m, Anlass m, Veranlassung f ( alle:

for zu):

there is cause for hope that … es besteht begründete Hoffnung, dass …;

give sb cause for jemandem Anlass geben zu;

you have no cause for complaint (to complain) Sie haben keinen Grund zur Klage (sich zu beklagen);

for cause JUR aus wichtigem Grunde;

without ( good oder just) cause ohne (triftigen) Grund

3. Sache f:

work for a good cause;

fight for one’s cause;

make common cause with gemeinsame Sache machen mit;

in the cause of zum Wohle (gen), für

4. JUR

a) Sache f, Rechtsstreit m, Prozess m

b) Gegenstand m, Grund m (eines Rechtsstreits):

cause of action Klagegrund;

show cause seine Gründe darlegen, dartun ( why warum)

5. Sache f, Angelegenheit f, Frage f

B v/t

1. veranlassen, lassen:

cause sb to do sth jemanden etwas tun lassen; jemanden veranlassen, etwas zu tun;

cause sth to be done etwas veranlassen; veranlassen, dass etwas getan wird;

he caused the man to be arrested er ließ den Mann verhaften; er veranlasste, dass der Mann verhaftet wurde

2. verursachen, hervorrufen, bewirken, Schaden anrichten, für eine Sensation, einen Skandal sorgen, einen Proteststurm entfachen, eine gefährliche Situation heraufbeschwören

3. bereiten, zufügen:

cause sb trouble jemandem Mühe oder Schwierigkeiten bereiten

* * *
1. noun
1) (what produces effect) Ursache, die (of für od. Gen.); (person) Verursacher, der/Verursacherin, die

be the cause of something — etwas verursachen

2) (reason) Grund, der; Anlass, der

cause for/to do something — Grund od. Anlass zu etwas/, etwas zu tun

no cause for concern — kein Grund zur Beunruhigung

without good cause — ohne triftigen Grund

3) (aim, object of support) Sache, die

freedom is our common cause — Freiheit ist unser gemeinsames Anliegen od. Ziel

be a lost cause — aussichtslos sein; verlorene Liebesmühe sein (ugs.)

[in] a good cause — [für] eine gute Sache
2. transitive verb
1) (produce) verursachen; erregen [Aufsehen, Ärgernis]; hervorrufen [Verstimmung, Unruhe, Verwirrung]

2) (give)

cause somebody worry/pain — etc. jemandem Sorge/Schmerzen usw. bereiten

cause somebody trouble/bother — jemandem Umstände machen

3) (induce)

cause somebody to do something — jemanden veranlassen, etwas zu tun

* * *

n.

Anlass -¨e m.

Erreger - m.

Grund ¨-e m.

Sache -n f.

Ursache -n f.

Verursacher m. v.

bewirken v.

hervorrufen v.

veranlassen v.

verursachen v.

English-german dictionary > cause
8 further

1. [ʹfɜ:ðə] a
1. compar от far I

2. более отдалённый, дальний

the further end of the village - дальний конец деревни

on the further side of the river - на другой /на той/ стороне реки

3. дальнейший, позднейший

until further notice - впредь до дальнейшего уведомления

further impovement - дальнейшее улучшение

further education - дальнейшее образование (на курсах повышения квалификации и т. п.; дневное и вечернее)

4. дополнительный, добавочный

further evidence - юр. новые доказательства

to obtain further information - получить дополнительные сведения

let's have no further talk and delay - давайте покончим с излишними разговорами и задержками
2. [ʹfɜ:ðə] adv
1. compar от far II 1

2. дальше, далее

unsafe to proceed further - дальше продвигаться опасно

as far as this but no further - до сих пор и не дальше

to inquire further - продолжать расспросы

3. кроме того; затем

let me further tell you - разрешите мне добавить

♢ further to - канц. в дополнение

further our letter of February 5 - в дополнение к нашему письму от 5 февраля

I'll see you further first! - ≅ как бы не так!; ещё чего захотел!; и не подумаю (этого сделать)!
3. [ʹfɜ:ðə] v
продвигать; содействовать; способствовать

to further plans - содействовать осуществлению планов

to further hopes - способствовать осуществлению надежд

to further the cause of peace - бороться за дело мира

НБАРС > further
9 further

ˈfə:ðə более отдаленный, дальний - the * end of the village дальний конец деревни - on the * side of the river на другой стороне реки дальнейший, позднейший - until * notice впредь до дальнейшего уведомления - * improvement дальнейшее улучшение - * education дальнейшее образование( на курсах повышения квалификации;
дневное и вечернее) дополнительный, добавочный - * evidence (юридическое) новые доказательства - to obtain * information получить дополнительные сведения - let's have no * talk and delay давайте покончим с излишними разговорами и задержками дальше, далее - unsafe to proceed * дальше продвигаться опасно - as far as this but no * до сих пор и не дальше - to inquire * продолжать расспросы кроме того;
затем - let me * tell you разрешите мне добавить > * to (канцелярское) в дополнение > * our letter of February 5 в дополнение к нашему письму от 5 февраля > I'll see you * first! как бы не так!;
еще чего захотел!;
и не подумаю (этого сделать) ! продвигать;
содействовать;
способствовать - to * plans содействовать осуществлению планов - to * hopes способствовать осуществлению надежд - to * the cause of peace бороться за дело мира carry ~ делать проводку ~ продвигать;
содействовать, способствовать;
to further hopes поддерживать надежды ~ to в добавление ~ to в дополнение let me ~ tell you разрешите мне добавить;
I'll see you further first = держи карман шире!, и не подумаю!, вот еще! ~ затем;
кроме того;
более того;
to inquire further расспросить подробнее let me ~ tell you разрешите мне добавить;
I'll see you further first = держи карман шире!, и не подумаю!, вот еще! to obtain ~ information получить дополнительные сведения;
till further notice впредь до дальнейшего уведомления process ~ подвергать дальнейшей обработке to obtain ~ information получить дополнительные сведения;
till further notice впредь до дальнейшего уведомления

Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > further
10 further

Adj

1. और\furtherआगे\furtherका

The military thought that further movement could be risky.
--------
Adv

1. और\furtherआगे

I want to hear his speech further.

2. अधिक\furtherविस्तार\furtherसे

He went further to explain the meaning.

3. के\furtherअलावा

Further,it has come to my notice.
--------
VT

1. आगे\furtherबढ़ाना

Mahatma Gandhi furthered the cause of peace.

English-Hindi dictionary > further
11 способствовать делу мира

1) Military: contribute to the cause of peace, further to the cause of peace, promote to the cause of peace

2) Politics: ( to) help the cause of peace, (to) advance the cause of peace

3) Mass media: promote peace

4) Makarov: further peace

Универсальный русско-английский словарь > способствовать делу мира
12 бороться за дело мира

Makarov: further the cause of peace

Универсальный русско-английский словарь > бороться за дело мира
13 advance

1. verb
1) (to move forward: The army advanced towards the town; Our plans are advancing well; He married the boss's daughter to advance (= improve) his chances of promotion.) avanzar, proceder

2) (to supply (someone) with (money) on credit: The bank will advance you $500.) adelantar

2. noun
1) (moving forward or progressing: We've halted the enemy's advance; Great advances in medicine have been made in this century.) avance, adelanto, progreso

2) (a payment made before the normal time: Can I have an advance on my salary?) anticipo

3) ((usually in plural) an attempt at (especially sexual) seduction.) insinuación, propuesta

3. adjective
1) (made etc before the necessary or agreed time: an advance payment.) por adelantado, anticipado

2) (made beforehand: an advance booking.) anticipado

3) (sent ahead of the main group or force: the advance guard.) avanzadilla

•

- advanced
- in advance

advance¹ n

1. avance

the army's advance el avance del ejército

2. adelanto / progreso / avance

an advance in science un adelanto científico

3. anticipo / adelanto

I need an advance of £50 necesito un adelanto de 50 libras

in advance por adelantado / con antelación

advance² vb

1. avanzar

the Austrians advanced on Sarajevo los austríacos avanzaron sobre Sarajevo

2. adelantar

we decided to advance the date of the meeting decidimos adelantar la fecha de la reunión

El gerundio de advance se escribe advancing

advance

tr[əd'vɑːns]

noun

1 (movement) avance nombre masculino

2 (progress) adelanto, progreso, avance nombre masculino

3 (payment) anticipo

transitive verb

1 (person, object) avanzar

■ he advanced all his troops avanzó toda su tropa

■ advance the film a little avanza un poco la película

2 (theory) avanzar; (idea) proponer; (suggestion) hacer; (opinion) dar

3 (money) anticipar, adelantar

4 (price) aumentar, incrementar

5 (cause, interests) favorecer, ayudar

■ this will advance the cause of peace esto favorecerá la causa de la paz

6 (date) adelantar

■ he wants to advance the date of the meeting to the 5th quiere adelantar la fecha de la reunión al día cinco

intransitive verb

1 (move forward) avanzar

■ the enemy advanced slowly towards us el enemigo avanzó lentamente hacia nosotros

■ as the days advanced our problems increased conforme pasaban los días nuestros problemas fueron creciendo

2 (rise) subir

■ house prices continue to advance el precio de la vivienda sigue en alza

\

SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL

in advance (gen) antes 2 (rent etc) por adelantado

■ to pay in advance pagar por adelantado

■ to know something in advance saber algo de antemano

■ to let somebody know in advance informar a alguien por adelantado

■ to book/prepare in advance reservar/preparar con antelación

in advance of antes de

to make advances progresar

to make advances to somebody (contact) establecer contacto con 2 (proposal) hacer una propuesta a 3 (sexually) insinuarse a alguien

advance booking reserva anticipada

advance guard avanzadilla

advance notice previo aviso

advance party avanzadilla

advance payment pago anticipado

advance warning previo aviso

advance [æd'vænts, əd-] v, - vanced ; - vancing vt

1) : avanzar, adelantar

to advance troops: avanzar las tropas

2) promote: ascender, promover

3) propose: proponer, presentar

4) : adelantar, anticipar

they advanced me next month's salary: me adelantaron el sueldo del próximo mes

advance vi

1) proceed: avanzar, adelantarse

2) progress: progresar

advance adj

: anticipado

advance notice: previo aviso

advance n

1) progression: avance m

2) progress: adelanto m, mejora f, progreso m

3) rise: aumento m, alza f

4) loan: anticipo m, préstamo m

5)

in advance : por adelantado

advance

adj.

• adelantado, -a adj.

• anticipado, -a adj.

n.

• adelantamiento s.m.

• adelanto s.m.

• anticipación s.f.

• anticipo s.m.

• avance s.m.

• paso s.m.

• progreso s.m.

v.

• acrecentar v.

• adelantarse v.

• anticipar v.

• avanzar v.

• aventajar v.

• fomentar v.

• ganar v.

• progresar v.

• proponer v.

I
1. əd'væns, əd'vɑːns
intransitive verb

a) \<\<person/vehicleoops\>\> avanzar*; \<\<science/project/society\>\> avanzar*, progresar

to advance on somebody/something — avanzar* hacia alguien/sobre algo

b) advancing pres p

a man of advancing years — un hombre entrado en años

2.

vt

1) ( move forward) avanzar*, adelantar; ( further) \<\<knowledge\>\> fomentar, potenciar; \<\<interests/cause\>\> promover*

2) ( suggest) \<\<idea\>\> presentar, proponer*; \<\<opinion\>\> dar*

3)

a) \<\<date/meeting\>\> adelantar

b) \<\<money/wages\>\> anticipar, adelantar

II

noun

1) c u (of person, army, vehicle) avance m; (of civilization, science) avance m, progreso m, adelanto m

with the advance of old age — con el paso de los años, a medida que envejece (or envejecía etc)

2) advances pl ( overtures) insinuaciones fpl

to make advances to somebody — hacerle* insinuaciones a alguien, insinuársele* a alguien

3) c

a) ( early payment) anticipo m, adelanto m

advance on something: they gave me an advance of £100 on my salary — me dieron un adelanto or anticipo de 100 libras a cuenta del sueldo

b) ( loan) préstamo m

4) (in phrases)

in advance: to pay in advance pagar* por adelantado or por anticipado; tickets are $10 in advance las entradas cuestan 10 dólares si se compran por adelantado; it was planned well in advance se planeó con mucha antelación or anticipación; thanking you in advance — agradeciéndole de antemano su atención

III

adjective (before n)

a) ( ahead of time)

the advance publicity for a product — la promoción previa al lanzamiento de un producto

advance booking is essential — es imprescindible hacer la reserva por anticipado or con anticipación

without any advance warning o notice — sin previo aviso

advance payment — pago m anticipado or (por) adelantado

b)

advance man — (AmE Pol) relaciones m públicas

advance man o agent — (AmE Theat) agente m

[ǝd'vɑːns]
1. N

1) (=forward movement) avance m

the rapid advance of the Russian army — el rápido avance de las tropas rusas

2) (=progress) (in science, technology) avance m, adelanto m ; [of disease] avance m

an important scientific advance — un importante avance or adelanto científico

the rapid advance of modern industrial society — el vertiginoso desarrollo de la sociedad industrial moderna

with the advance of old age — según se va/iba envejeciendo

3) [of money]

a) (=initial payment) anticipo m, adelanto m

she was paid a £530,000 advance for her next novel — le dieron un anticipo or adelanto de 530.000 libras por su próxima novela

b) (on salary)

could you give me an advance? — ¿me podría dar un anticipo?

• she got an advance on her salary — consiguió que le anticiparan parte del sueldo

c) (=loan) préstamo m

4) (=rise) (in prices) alza f, aumento m

• any advance on £15? — (in auction) ¿alguien ofrece más de 15 libras?, 15 libras ¿alguien da más?

5) advances (amorous) insinuaciones fpl ; (Pol) intentos mpl de acercamiento

• to make advances to or toward(s) sb — (amorous) insinuarse a algn, hacer insinuaciones a algn

she accused him of making unwanted sexual advances — lo acusó de insinuaciones sexuales indebidas

• she rejected his advances — no hizo caso de sus insinuaciones

6)

in advance: to let sb know a week in advance — avisar a algn con ocho días de antelación

• to book in advance — reservar con antelación

• the dish may be made in advance — el plato puede prepararse con anterioridad

• in advance of, to arrive in advance of sb — llegar antes que algn

to be in advance of one's time — adelantarse a su época, estar por delante de su época

• to pay in advance — pagar por adelantado

• to send sb on in advance — mandar a algn por delante

• thanking you in advance — agradeciéndole de antemano

2. VT

1) (=move forward) [+ time, date, clock] adelantar; (Mil) [+ troops] avanzar

it advances the ageing process — acelera el envejecimiento

2) (=further) [+ plan, knowledge] potenciar; [+ interests] promover, fomentar; [+ career] promocionar; [+ cause, claim] promover; [+ person] (in career) ascender (to a)

he has done much to advance our understanding of music — ha contribuido mucho a potenciar nuestros conocimientos musicales

3) (=put forward) [+ idea, opinion, theory] proponer, sugerir; [+ suggestion] hacer; [+ proposal] presentar; [+ opinion] expresar

he advanced the theory that... — propuso or sugirió la teoría de que...

4) (=hand over) [+ money] (as initial fee) adelantar, anticipar; (as early wages) adelantar; (as loan) prestar

3. VI

1) (=move forward) avanzar

the advancing enemy army — el ejército enemigo que avanza

• she advanced across the room — avanzó hacia el otro lado de la habitación

• to advance on sth/sb — (gen) acercarse a algo/algn, avanzar hacia algo/algn

to advance on sth — (Mil) avanzar sobre algo

2) (=progress) [science, technology] progresar, adelantarse; [work, society] avanzar; [career] progresar; [person, pupil] hacer progresos, progresar; (in rank) ascender (to a)

• her film career was advancing nicely — su carrera cinematográfica progresaba bien or iba por muy buen camino

• despite his advancing years he was a good player — a pesar de su edad (avanzada) era un buen jugador

with advancing years one forgets — con el paso de los años uno se olvida

3) (Econ) (=rise) [price] subir

4.

CPD

advance booking N — reserva f anticipada, reserva f por anticipado

advance booking advisable — se recomienda que reserven por adelantado

advance booking office N — (Brit) taquilla f (de reservas or venta anticipada)

advance copy N — [of book] ejemplar m de muestra; [of speech] copia f (del discurso)

advance guard N — (=reconnaissance group) avanzada f ; (=lookouts) avanzadilla f ; (=mobile unit) brigada f móvil

advance man N — (US) (Pol) responsable de una campaña política

advance notice N — aviso m previo

meals can be provided with advance notice — con aviso previo, se preparan comidas

advance party N — (=reconnaissance group) avanzada f ; (=lookouts) avanzadilla f

advance payment N — anticipo m

advance publicity N — promoción f (antes del estreno, lanzamiento etc)

advance warning N — aviso m previo

* * *

I
1. [əd'væns, əd'vɑːns]
intransitive verb

a) \<\<person/vehicle/troops\>\> avanzar*; \<\<science/project/society\>\> avanzar*, progresar

to advance on somebody/something — avanzar* hacia alguien/sobre algo

b) advancing pres p

a man of advancing years — un hombre entrado en años

2.

vt

1) ( move forward) avanzar*, adelantar; ( further) \<\<knowledge\>\> fomentar, potenciar; \<\<interests/cause\>\> promover*

2) ( suggest) \<\<idea\>\> presentar, proponer*; \<\<opinion\>\> dar*

3)

a) \<\<date/meeting\>\> adelantar

b) \<\<money/wages\>\> anticipar, adelantar

II

noun

1) c u (of person, army, vehicle) avance m; (of civilization, science) avance m, progreso m, adelanto m

with the advance of old age — con el paso de los años, a medida que envejece (or envejecía etc)

2) advances pl ( overtures) insinuaciones fpl

to make advances to somebody — hacerle* insinuaciones a alguien, insinuársele* a alguien

3) c

a) ( early payment) anticipo m, adelanto m

advance on something: they gave me an advance of £100 on my salary — me dieron un adelanto or anticipo de 100 libras a cuenta del sueldo

b) ( loan) préstamo m

4) (in phrases)

in advance: to pay in advance pagar* por adelantado or por anticipado; tickets are $10 in advance las entradas cuestan 10 dólares si se compran por adelantado; it was planned well in advance se planeó con mucha antelación or anticipación; thanking you in advance — agradeciéndole de antemano su atención

III

adjective (before n)

a) ( ahead of time)

the advance publicity for a product — la promoción previa al lanzamiento de un producto

advance booking is essential — es imprescindible hacer la reserva por anticipado or con anticipación

without any advance warning o notice — sin previo aviso

advance payment — pago m anticipado or (por) adelantado

b)

advance man — (AmE Pol) relaciones m públicas

advance man o agent — (AmE Theat) agente m

English-spanish dictionary > advance
14 serve

1. n подача

good serve — хорошая подача

forehand serve — подача справа

2. v служить, быть слугой

to serve a master — служить хозяину

serve as proof — служить доказательством

serve as evidence — служить доказательством

serve the cause of peace — служить делу мира

to serve with distinction — безупречно служить

to serve as a stopgap — служить временной мерой

3. v работать, состоять на службе, быть служащим

to serve in an office — служить в конторе

to serve on a committee — быть членом комитета

to serve on a jury — исполнять обязанности присяжного заседателя

4. v служить в армии, быть военным

to serve in the army — служить в армии

to serve in the ranks — служить рядовым

to serve abroad — служить в войсках, находящихся за границей

to serve in the war — быть участником войны

serve in the army — служить в армии

serve as a pretext — служить предлогом

serve political goals — служить политическим целям

serve political purposes — служить политическим целям

does it serve your turn — это вам подходит; это вам годится

5. v обслуживать

to serve badly — плохо обслуживать

this railway line serves a large district — эта железнодорожная линия обслуживает обширный район

to serve the gun — обслуживать орудие

6. v снабжать

to serve a town with water — снабжать город водой

7. v заниматься клиентами, покупателями, обслуживать

to serve customers — обслуживать покупателей

8. v подавать, разносить; обслуживать

to serve at table — подавать, обслуживать

to serve breakfast — подавать завтрак

serve the coffee in the drawing room — подайте кофе в гостиной

dinner is served! — обед подан!

soup should be served up very hot — суп следует подавать очень горячим

to serve out fish for supper — подавать на ужин рыбу

no wines were served at the dinner — вина за обедом не подавали

ladies are served before men — сначала подают дамам

I was served with tea and cake — мне подали чай с пирогом

sometimes they serve a good meal here — здесь иногда хорошо кормят

the dinner was well served up — обед был хорошо сервирован

serve upon — подавать

serve on — подавать на

serve food — подавать пищу

serve loads — подавать нагрузку

to serve underarm — подавать снизу

9. v кормить, пичкать

to serve up an old tale — пересказывать старую басню

10. v выполнять назначение; служить; использоваться, применяться

to serve no purpose — никуда не годиться

to serve as a pretext — служить поводом

to serve its turn — выполнять своё назначение

serve as — служить в качестве

serve the purpose — служить цели

to serve Mammon — служить мамоне

to serve at sea — служить во флоте

to serve on jury — выполнять функции присяжного заседателя

11. v быть полезным, оказывать помощь; содействовать

to serve the cause of peace — служить делу мира

I would do much to serve you — я бы многое отдал, чтобы быть вам полезным

I wish I could serve you in this matter — жаль, что я не могу помочь вам в этом деле

12. v благоприятствовать

when occasion serves — при удобном случае

13. v удовлетворять, годиться, быть достаточным

that excuse will not serve you — эта отговорка не оправдывает вас

14. v отбывать срок

to serve an apprenticeship — проходить курс ученичества

to serve time — отбывать срок

he served eight months in jail — он отсидел восемь месяцев в обходиться, поступать

to serve a term — отбывать срок наказания

to serve sentence — отбывать приговор, наказание

serve a life sentence — отбывать пожизненный срок

to serve in a penitentiary — отбывать тюремное заключение

to serve for life — отбывать пожизненное тюремное заключение

15. v церк. служить службу

to serve under the white ensign — служить в военно-морском флоте

16. v подавать мяч

to serve well — подавать хорошо

serve immediately — подавать немедленно

17. v юр. доставлять, вручать

to serve notice — официально извещать; вручать повестку

to serve a notice — вручать повестку, уведомление

18. v с. -х. случать, спаривать

to serve a mare — случать кобылу

19. v мор. клетневать

to serve a gun — вести огонь из орудия

to serve hand and foot — служить верой и правдой

to serve the time — приспосабливаться к духу времени;

Синонимический ряд:

1. act (verb) act; function; officiate; operate; perform

2. attend (verb) attend; care for; cater; do for; minister; minister to; mother; nurse; provide; purvey; satisfy; wait on

3. benefit (verb) advantage; avail; benefit; better; further; oblige; profit; work for

4. enlist (verb) enlist; enroll

5. follow (verb) accept; agree; answer; do; follow; obey; suffice; suit

6. help (verb) administer; aid; facilitate; help; succor; succour

7. promote (verb) advance; assist; contribute; encourage; forward; foster; promote; work

8. treat (verb) deal with; handle; play; take; treat; use

English-Russian base dictionary > serve
15 приверженность

adherence, committal, commitment; (преданность) devotion, dedication

выразить приверженность страны чему-л. — to express the commitment of a country to smth.

горячая приверженность делу — enthusiastic committal to the cause

неизменная приверженность чему-л. — continued commitment to smth.

слепая приверженность — partisanship

страстная приверженность идее — burning commitment to an idea

приверженность делу дальнейшего расширения обменов — commitment to further growth of exchanges

приверженность делу мира — commitment to peace, devotion / dedication to the cause of peace

приверженность политике разрядки — commitment to detente

приверженность принципам мирного сосуществования — adherence to the principles of peaceful coexistence

приверженность ядерному сдерживанию — dedication to nuclear deterrence

Russian-english dctionary of diplomacy > приверженность
16 promote

1. v продвигать; повышать в чине или звании

to be promoted over the head of other persons — продвинуться по службе, обойдя других

promote to a grade — присваивать очередное звание

2. v способствовать, содействовать, поддерживать, поощрять

to promote trade — содействовать развитию торговли, поощрять развитие торговли

to promote a scheme — содействовать продвижению плана ; поддерживать план

promote peace — содействовать делу мира

promote justice — содействовать правосудию

promote progress — содействовать прогрессу

promote security — содействовать безопасности

promote trade — содействовать развитию торговли

3. v возбуждать; стимулировать; активизировать

to promote disorder — возбуждать беспорядки

promote investment — стимулировать инвестиции

4. v переводить в следующий класс

5. v учреждать

to promote an enterprise — учредить предприятие

6. v шахм. продвигать пешку

7. v сл. красть, воровать; раздобывать

8. v мед. способствовать, провоцировать; активировать; стимулировать; ускорять

promote to the cause of peace — способствовать делу мира

Синонимический ряд:

1. advance (verb) advance; champion; encourage; foster; further; jump; prefer; serve

2. advertise (verb) advertise; circulate; plug; publicize; push

3. assist (verb) advocate; aid; assist; patronise; patronize; succor; succour; urge

4. boost (verb) boost; build up; cry; enhance; publicise; puff; talk up; tout

5. elevate (verb) aggrandise; aggrandize; ascend; elevate; exalt; graduate; raise; upgrade

6. feed (verb) cultivate; encourage; feed

7. forward (verb) forward; foster; further

Антонимический ряд:

criticize; debase; degrade; demoralise; demoralize; depress; discourage; discredit; dishonour; harm; hinder; impair; impede; injure; repress

English-Russian base dictionary > promote
17 содействовать

нсв/св vi; св - см посодействовать

кому/чему-л помогать to help, to assist lit; способствовать to further, to promote; вносить вклад to contribute to/towards sth

соде́йствовать взаимопонима́нию ме́жду наро́дами — to promote international understanding

соде́йствовать де́лу ми́ра — to further/to promote (the cause of) peace

мно́гие фа́кторы соде́йствовали его́ успе́ху — various factors contributed to his success

Русско-английский учебный словарь > содействовать
18 способствовать

1. facilitate

2. stimulate

грубая пища способствует пищеварению — roughage stimulates bowel movement

3. conduce

способствовать успеху — to conduce to success

4. redound to

способствовать; помогать; помочь — redound to

5. aid

6. make

7. abet

8. abetting

9. encourage

подстрекать к совершению преступления; способствовать совершению преступления — to encourage perpetration of a crime

10. encouraged

11. encouraging

12. foster

способствовать развитию художественного таланта — to foster artistic talent

13. militate

14. militated

15. militating

16. promote; further; contribute to

способствовал — contributed to

способствовать коррозии — promote corrosion

способствовать расширению торговли — promote trade

способствовать осуществлению планов — to further plans

способствовал делу мира — contributed to the cause of peace

17. contributing

18. contribute

это в значительной степени способствовало нашему успеху — this substantially contributed to our success

Синонимический ряд:

содействовать (глаг.) оказать содействие; оказывать содействие; содействовать; споспешествовать

Русско-английский большой базовый словарь > способствовать
19 frente

f.

forehead.

frente a frente face to face

m.

1 front (parte delantera).

dar un paso al frente to step forward

estar al frente de to be in charge of, to head; (empresa) to be at the front of, to lead (manifestación)

de frente forward (hacia delante)

chocaron de frente they collided head on

me encontré de frente con él I found myself face to face with him

en frente opposite

en frente de mi casa opposite my house

hacer frente a algo to face up to something

2 front (military) (de batalla).

hacer o formar frente común to make common cause

3 front (Meteo).

frente cálido/frío warm/cold front

4 forehead, brow.

5 alliance, coalition.

* * *

frente

► nombre masculino

1 (gen) front

2 MILITAR front, front line

► nombre femenino

1 ANATOMÍA forehead

\

FRASEOLOGÍA

al frente de (delante) at the head of 2 (hacia delante) ahead

arrugar la frente to frown

chocar de frente to crash head on

con la frente muy alta with one's head up high

de frente (hacia adelante) straight ahead 2 (sin rodeos) straight

frente a (enfrente de) in front of, opposite 2 (en contra de) against 3 (en presencia de) in the presence of

frente a frente face to face

hacer frente a alguien to challenge somebody, face up to somebody

hacer frente a algo to face something, face up to something

no tener dos dedos de frente to be as thick as two short planks

ponerse al frente de algo to take command of something

* * *

noun f.

1) front

2) brow, forehead

* * *

1.

SF (Anat) forehead, brow liter

• arrugar la frente — to frown, knit one's brow

- adornar la frente a algn

- con la frente muy alta

- lo lleva escrito en la frente

- frente a frente
dedo
2. SM

1) (=parte delantera) front

• al frente — in front

un ejército con su capitán al frente — an army led by its captain, an army with its captain at the front

• al frente de, entró en Madrid al frente de las tropas — he led the troops into Madrid, he entered Madrid at the head of his troops

el Madrid sigue al frente de la clasificación — Madrid still lead the table o are still top of the league

espero seguir al frente del festival — I hope to continue as director of the festival

estuvo al frente del Ministerio de Industria — he was Minister for Industry

un concierto con Herbert Von Karajan al frente de la Filarmónica de Berlín — a concert by the Berlin Philharmonic conducted by Herbert Von Karajan

• en frente, la casa de en frente — the house opposite

• hacer frente a — [+ crisis, problemas] to tackle; [+ situación, realidad] to face up to

hay que hacer frente a las dificultades — we have to tackle the problems

tenemos que hacer frente a grandes gastos — we are facing considerable expenses

• frente por frente, vivimos frente por frente — we live directly opposite each other

está frente por frente del cine — it's directly opposite the cinema

frente de arranque, frente de trabajo — (Min) coalface

2)

• de frente, atacar de frente — to make a frontal attack

chocar de frente — to crash head-on

ir de frente — to go forward

mirar de frente — to look (straight) ahead

seguir de frente — to go straight on, go straight ahead

viene un coche de frente — there's a car heading straight for us

3) (Mil, Pol) front

• formar o hacer un frente común con algn — to form a united front with sb

han formado un frente contra la corrupción — they have formed an alliance against corruption

frente de batalla — battle front

frente del oeste — western front

Frente Polisario — Polisario Front

frente popular — popular front

frente unido — united front

4) (Meteo) front

frente cálido — warm front

frente frío — cold front

5)

• frente a —

a) (=enfrente de) opposite

frente al hotel hay un banco — there's a bank opposite the hotel

ella está frente a mí — she is facing o opposite me

el barco encalló frente a la costa irlandesa — the boat ran aground off the Irish coast

b) (=en presencia de)

frente a las cámaras — in front of the cameras

me encontré frente a una situación difícil — I found myself facing a difficult situation

ceder frente a una amenaza — to give way to o in the face of a threat

c) (=en oposición a)

el euro sigue fuerte frente al dólar — the euro remains strong against the dollar

logró un 39% de los votos, frente al 49% de 1990 — she got 39% of the vote, as against 49% in 1990

empataron frente al Santander — they drew against o with Santander

frente a lo que pensaba, eran franceses — in contrast to what I thought, they were French

6)

• frente mío/ suyo — esp Cono Sur * in front of me/you, opposite me/you

* * *
I
femenino forehead, brow (liter)

arrugó la frente — she frowned

una frente despejada or ancha — a broad forehead

con la frente bien alta or en alto — with one's head held high
II
masculino

1)

a) ( de edificio) front, facade (frml)

hacer(le) frente a algo — (a la realidad, una responsabilidad) to face up to something; (a gastos, obligaciones) to meet something

le hizo frente a la vida por sus propios medios — she stood on her own two feet

hacerle frente a alguien — (a enemigo, atacante) to face somebody

b) (en locs)

al frente: dio un paso al frente she took a step forward; la Orquesta Sinfónica, con López Morán al frente the Symphony Orchestra, conducted by López Morán; desfilaron llevando al frente el emblema de la paz they marched behind the symbol of peace; vive al frente (Chi) she lives opposite; pasar al frente (AmL) to come/go up to the front; al frente de: están al frente de la clasificación they are at the top of the table; iba al frente de la patrulla he was leading the patrol; está al frente de la empresa she is in charge of the company; de frente: chocaron de frente they crashed head on; una foto de frente a full-face photo; no entra de frente it won't go in front on; de frente a (AmL) facing; frente a opposite; viven frente a mi casa they live opposite me; el hotel está frente al mar the hotel faces the sea; estamos frente a un grave problema we are faced with a serious problem; se mantiene estable frente al dólar — it is holding up against the dollar

2)

a) (Meteo) front

b) ( en una guerra) front

sin novedad en el frente — (fr hecha, hum) all quiet on that front (colloq & hum)

un frente de acción contra la droga — a campaign to combat drugs

c) (Pol) ( agrupación) front

el frente de liberación — the liberation front

hacer (un) frente común — to form a united front

•

- frente de batalla

* * *
I
femenino forehead, brow (liter)

arrugó la frente — she frowned

una frente despejada or ancha — a broad forehead

con la frente bien alta or en alto — with one's head held high
II
masculino

1)

a) ( de edificio) front, facade (frml)

hacer(le) frente a algo — (a la realidad, una responsabilidad) to face up to something; (a gastos, obligaciones) to meet something

le hizo frente a la vida por sus propios medios — she stood on her own two feet

hacerle frente a alguien — (a enemigo, atacante) to face somebody

b) (en locs)

al frente: dio un paso al frente she took a step forward; la Orquesta Sinfónica, con López Morán al frente the Symphony Orchestra, conducted by López Morán; desfilaron llevando al frente el emblema de la paz they marched behind the symbol of peace; vive al frente (Chi) she lives opposite; pasar al frente (AmL) to come/go up to the front; al frente de: están al frente de la clasificación they are at the top of the table; iba al frente de la patrulla he was leading the patrol; está al frente de la empresa she is in charge of the company; de frente: chocaron de frente they crashed head on; una foto de frente a full-face photo; no entra de frente it won't go in front on; de frente a (AmL) facing; frente a opposite; viven frente a mi casa they live opposite me; el hotel está frente al mar the hotel faces the sea; estamos frente a un grave problema we are faced with a serious problem; se mantiene estable frente al dólar — it is holding up against the dollar

2)

a) (Meteo) front

b) ( en una guerra) front

sin novedad en el frente — (fr hecha, hum) all quiet on that front (colloq & hum)

un frente de acción contra la droga — a campaign to combat drugs

c) (Pol) ( agrupación) front

el frente de liberación — the liberation front

hacer (un) frente común — to form a united front

•

- frente de batalla

* * *

frente¹

¹ = brow, forehead.

Nota: De la cabeza.

Ex: I can see a staff member in a sitting position with hand held on the brow covering the eye vision and engrossed in reading.

Ex: The camera hound of the future wears on his forehead a lump a little larger than a walnut.

* con el sudor de + Posesivo + frente = by the sweat of + Posesivo + brow.

* con la frente en alto = stand + tall.

* dinero ganado con el sudor de la frente = hard-earned money.

* ganarse el pan con el sudor de la frente = earn + Posesivo + daily bread with the sweat of + Posesivo + brow.

* no tener dos dedos de frente = as thick as a brick, as thick as two (short) planks, as daft as a brush, knucklehead.

* sudor de la frente = sweat of the brow.

frente²

² = front.

Ex: In addition, one must not forget such mundane matters as door bells ( front and back), a closing bell, fire bells, security alarms and possibly others all of which must be noticeably different.

* al frente de = in the forefront of/in, in charge (of), at the forefront of.

* choque de frente = head-on collision.

* dar un paso al frente = step up.

* de frente = head-on, frontal.

* hacia el frente = ahead.

* mantenerse al frente = keep + ahead.

* mirar al frente = look + straight ahead.

* poner a Alguien al frente de = put + Nombre + in charge of.

* viento de frente = headwind.

frente³

³ = front.

Ex: Present auguries on the resource front are not good.

* frente cálido = warm front.

* frente de altas presiones = ridge of high pressure.

* frente de bajas presiones = ridge of low pressure.

* frente de batalla, el = battlefront, the.

* frente de guerra, el = war front, the.

* frente de investigación = research front.

* frente frío = cold front.

* frente glacial = cold front.

* frente metereológico = weather front.

* frente occidental, el = Western Front, the.

* hacer un frente común = stand up as + one.

* presentar un frente común = present + common front.

frente⁴

= against.

Ex: Against this proliferation of hosts there is a distinct awareness amongst users of the need for the rationalisation.

* en frente = ahead, in front.

* en frente de = in front of.

* frente a = opposite, versus (vs - abreviatura), outside, in the face of.

* frente a la playa = beachfront.

* frente al mar = on the seafront, seafront, beachfront.

* frente al océano = oceanfront.

* hacer frente = combat, come to + terms with, contain, address + Nombre + head-on, meet + Nombre + head-on, tackle + Nombre + head-on, face + Nombre + head-on, engage.

* hacer frente a = confront, deal with, face, face up to, meet, cope with, stand up to, brave, breast, address.

* hacer frente a deudas = meet + debts.

* hacer frente a gastos = meet + expenses.

* hacer frente a la delincuencia = tackle + crime.

* hacer frente a la inflación = combat + inflation.

* hacer frente a la realidad = confront + reality, face + (the) facts, face + (up to) the fact that, face + reality.

* hacer frente a la realidad (de que) = face + the truth (that).

* hacer frente a las diferencias = face + differences.

* hacer frente a la situación = tackle + situation.

* hacer frente a la vida = cope.

* hacer frente al cambio = manage + change.

* hacer frente al futuro = face up to + the future.

* hacer frente al hecho de que = face + (up to) the fact that.

* hacer frente a los elementos = brave + the elements.

* hacer frente a los hechos = face + facts.

* hacer frente a tiempos difíciles = cope with + difficult times.

* hacer frente a una amenaza = address + threat.

* hacer frente a una crisis = face + crisis, meet + crisis.

* hacer frente a una incertidumbre = meet + uncertainty.

* hacer frente a una necesidad = meet + need, serve + need.

* hacer frente a una responsabilidad = meet + responsibility, face up to + responsibility.

* hacer frente a un cambio = meet + change.

* hacer frente a un gasto = meet + cost.

* hacer frente a un problema = attack + problem, combat + problem, wrestle with + problem.

* hacer frente a un reto = rise (up) to + challenge, confront + challenge, meet + challenge, embrace + challenge.

* superarse para hacer frente a Algo = rise to + meet.

* * *

frente¹

feminine

[ Vocabulary notes (Spanish) ]

forehead, brow ( liter)

arrugó la frente extrañada she gave a puzzled frown, she knitted her brow in puzzlement

tiene la frente despejada or ancha he has a broad forehead

con la frente bien alta or en alto or levantada with one's head held high

frente²

masculine

A

1 (de un edificio) front, facade ( frml)

unos reflectores iluminaban todo el frente the whole facade was lit up by spotlights

pintaron el frente de la casa they painted the front of the house

hacer(le) frente a algo/algn to face up to sth/sb

hay que hacer frente a la realidad you must face up to reality

le hizo frente a la vida por sus propios medios she stood on her own two feet

no puede hacer frente a sus obligaciones he is unable to meet his obligations

2 ( en locs):

al frente: dio un paso al frente she took a step forward, she stepped forward one pace

la Orquesta Sinfónica, con López Morán al frente the Symphony Orchestra, conducted by o under the direction of López Morán

desfilaron llevando al frente el emblema de la paz they marched behind the symbol of peace

vive al frente ( Chi); she lives opposite

cruzó al frente para no saludarme ( Chi); he crossed the road to avoid speaking to me

pasar al frente ( AmL); to come/go up to the front

al frente de: están al frente de la clasificación they are at the top of the table, they lead o head the division

iba al frente de la patrulla he was leading the patrol

puso a su hija al frente de la empresa he put his daughter in charge of the company

de frente: los dos vehículos chocaron de frente the two vehicles crashed head on

una foto de frente a full-face photo

no entra de frente it won't go in front on o frontways

de frente a ( AmL); facing

se puso de frente a la clase she stood facing the class

frente a opposite

viven justo frente a mi casa they live directly opposite me

se detuvo frente al museo he stopped in front of o opposite the museum

el hotel está frente al mar the hotel faces the sea

estamos frente a un grave problema we are faced with a serious problem, we have a serious problem on our hands

se tomarán medidas frente al grave problema de la droga measures will be taken to confront the serious drug problem

se mantiene estable frente al dólar it is holding up o remaining stable against the dollar

hay 150, frente a las 120 del año pasado there are 150, compared to o as against 120 last year

frente a frente face to face

cuando estuvimos frente a frente no supimos qué decir when we met face to face we didn't know what to say to each other

le dije frente a frente lo que pensaba de él I told him to his face what I thought of him

frente por frente: la iglesia y el colegio están frente por frente the church and the school are right o directly opposite each other

B

1 ( Meteo) front

2 (en una guerra) front

sin novedad en el frente (fr hecha, hum); all quiet on that front ( colloq hum)

han convertido las aulas en un frente de contiendas políticas they have turned the classrooms into political battlegrounds

un frente de acción contra la droga a campaign to combat drugs

3 ( Pol) (agrupación) front

pertenece al frente de liberación she belongs to the liberation front

hacer (un) frente común to form a united front

* * *

frente sustantivo femenino
forehead, brow (liter);
◊ arrugar la frente to frown

■ sustantivo masculino
1
a) ( de edificio) front, facade (frml);

◊ hacer(le) frente a algo (a la realidad, una responsabilidad) to face up to sth;

(a gastos, obligaciones) to meet sth;
◊ hacerle frente a algn (a enemigo, atacante) to face sb

b) ( en locs)

◊ al frente: dar un paso al frente to take a step forward;

vive al frente (Chi) she lives opposite;
estar al frente de algo ( de una clasificación) to be at the top of sth;

( de una empresa) to be in charge of sth;
◊ de frente ‹ chocar› head on;

una foto de frente a full-face photo;
de frente a (AmL) facing;
frente a opposite;
estamos frente a un grave problema we are faced with a serious problem
2 (Meteo, Mil, Pol) front
frente
I sustantivo masculino
1 front: los soldados se marchan al frente mañana, the soldiers are leaving for the front tomorrow
2 (fachada) front, facade: el frente del hotel da al Paseo del Prado, the front of the hotel faces the Paseo del Prado
II f Anat forehead
♦ Locuciones: hacer frente a algo, to face something, stand up to something
al frente de, at the head of
de frente, (hacia delante) ahead
(frontalmente) head-on
frente a, in front of, opposite
frente a frente, face-to-face
tener dos dedos de frente, to have common sense
' frente' also found in these entries:
Spanish:
arrugarse
- copete
- dedo
- desafiar
- enfrentar
- escrita
- escrito
- fomento
- juramentar
- miliciana
- miliciano
- nacional
- penetrar
- salida
- salido
- saliente
- sudor
- testuz
- valor
- ante
- brecha
- chocar
- dar
- enjugar
- reaccionar
- recurrir
- rozar
- tomar
- tormenta
English:
brow
- collide
- confront
- cushion
- dissenter
- face
- forehead
- front
- head-on
- mop
- music
- off
- opposite
- pucker
- self-conscious
- shortfall
- stand up
- thick
- across
- amenable
- brave
- cover
- forefront
- give
- hard
- head
- lose
- meet
- picket
- present
- stand
- straight
- trickle

* * *

frente

♦ nf

forehead;

arrugar la frente to knit one's brow, to frown;

frente a frente face to face;

Comp

ir con la frente muy alta to hold one's head high

♦ nm

1. [parte delantera] front;

el frente de la casa está pintado de amarillo the front of the house is painted yellow;

que den un paso al frente los voluntarios could the volunteers please step forward?;

su hermano está al frente de la compañía her brother is in charge of the company;

marchaba al frente de los manifestantes she was marching at the front of o leading the demonstration;

el Académico sigue al frente de la liga Académico are still top of the league;
Am
pasar al frente [en clase] to come to the front of the class [to recite a lesson];

de frente [hacia delante] forwards;
[uno contra otro] head-on;
chocaron de frente they collided head-on, they were involved in a head-on collision;

me encontré de frente con él I found myself face to face with him;

abordar un problema de frente to tackle a problem head-on;
Am
de frente a facing;

se puso de frente a la casa he stood facing the house;

hay una panadería en frente there's a baker's opposite;

en frente de mi casa opposite my house;

frente a [enfrente de] opposite;

se encuentra frente a él she's opposite him

2. Mil front;

murió en el frente he died on the front;

hacer o [m5] formar frente común to make common cause

Comp
frente de batalla battlefront
3. Meteo front

Comp
frente cálido warm front;
frente frío cold front

4. [grupo, organización] front

Comp
Frente Amplio = coalition of left-wing Uruguayan political parties;
frente popular popular front;

Frente Sandinista (de Liberación Nacional) Sandinista (National Liberation) Front

5.
hacer frente a algo [enfrentarse a algo] to face up to sth, to tackle sth;

hicieron frente a la situación they faced up to the situation;

hacer frente a un problema to tackle a problem

♦ prep

1 [de cara a]
estamos frente a una revolución científica we are facing a scientific revolution;

frente a la injusticia es necesario actuar we must act to combat injustice;

frente a las duras críticas de la oposición… in the face of harsh criticism from the opposition…

2 [en contraste con]
frente al cielo nublado de ayer, hoy tendremos sol unlike yesterday, when it was cloudy, today it will be sunny;

frente a los habitantes de la costa, los del interior… compared to people who live on the coast, those who live inland…

* * *

frente

I f forehead;

con la frente alta/erguida fig with (one’s) head held high;

lo lleva escrito en la frente fig it’s written all over him

II m

1 MIL, METEO front

2 en locuciones

:

de frente colisión head-on;

de frente al grupo L.Am. facing the group;

foto de frente head and shoulders photograph;

frente a frente fig face to face;

estar al frente de algo head sth, lead sth;

hacer frente a situación face up to; deudas meet, be able to pay;

ponte más al frente move further forward, move closer to the front;

ponerse al frente de la situación fig take charge (of the situation)

III prp

:

frente a opposite;

estar frente a crisis be faced with, be facing

* * *

frente nm

1) : front

al frente de: at the head of

en frente: in front, opposite

2) : facade

3) : front line, sphere of activity

4) : front (in meteorology)

frente frío: cold front

5)

hacer frente a : to face up to, to brave

frente nf

1) : forehead, brow

2)

frente a frente : face to face

* * *

frente n

1. (en meteorología, guerra) front

un frente frío a cold front

2. (de la cara) forehead

tiene la frente amplia he has a high forehead

al frente (hacia delante) forward (al mando) in charge

de frente head on

hacer frente a algo to face up to something

hacer frente a alguien to stand up to somebody [pt. & pp. stood]

Spanish-English dictionary > frente
20 Historical Portugal

   Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.

   A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.

   Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140

   The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."

   In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.

   The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.

   Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385

   Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in

   Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.

   The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.

   Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580

   The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.

   The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.

   What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.

   By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.

   Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.

   The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.

   By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.

   In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.

   Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640

   Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.

   Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.

   On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.

   Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822

   Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.

   Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.

   In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the

   Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.

   Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.

   Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.

   Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910

   During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.

   Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.

   Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.

   Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.

   Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.

   As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.

   First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26

   Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.

   The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.

   Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.

   The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74

   During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."

   Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.

   For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),

   and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.

   The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.

   With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.

   During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.

   The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.

   At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.

   The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.

   Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76

   Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.

   Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.

   In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.

   In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.

   In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.

   The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until

   UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.

   Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000

   After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.

   From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.

   Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.

   Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.

   In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.

   In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.

   Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.

    Contemporary Portugal

   Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.

   The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.

   Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.

   Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).

   All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.

   The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.

   After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.

   Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.

   Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.

   From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.

   Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.

   In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.

   An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

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